When Rocket Lab presented the Rutherford engine at the 31st Space Symposium held in Colorado, it appeared similar to conventional space engines.
It wasn’t.
Rocket Lab produced the Rutherford using additive manufacturing, where a large 3D printer carefully builds up material layer by layer—here, specifically powdered metal—to create components like fuel control valves, injector systems, pump mechanisms, and even the engine’s combustion chamber. These individual pieces were subsequently put together to complete the assembly.
Pretty much every modern rocket engine has a considerable part of it produced through 3D printing," states Peter Beck, the founder and CEO of Rocket Lab. "This technology truly revolutionizes the field.
Rocket Lab isn’t the only player in this field. Various other firms such as Elementum 3D, Beehive Industries, and Ursa Major also produce engine components using 3D printers. Additionally, NASA has been involved, having tested 3D-printed rocket nozzles recently at the Marshall Space Flight Center located in Huntsville, Alabama.
Although space exploration represents the main application area for this technology, 3D printing has also caught the interest of government defense agencies—particularly concerning advancements in hypersonic missile systems. The U.S., aiming to stay competitive against rivals like China and Russia, focuses on these projectiles which travel beyond Mach 5, exceeding 3,800 miles per hour. There are ongoing initiatives aimed at pushing their speed limits further still.
"As a technology, it may not be cutting-edge, but it is novel for specific sectors such as the defense industry," explains Nick Doucette, COO at Ursa Major based in Berthoud, Colorado.
3D printing transitions from being a hobbyist activity to becoming a major industrial force.
Based in Long Beach, California, Rocket Lab is a comprehensive aerospace firm specializing in both designing and manufacturing rocket engines as well as producing their own satellites and rockets. Their Electron rocket—a partially reusable spacecraft designed for orbit—is among the most commonly launched vehicles of its kind.
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In the U.S., coming second only to launches by SpaceX: The organization managed 16 missions last year, primarily deploying small satellites into orbit.
The Rutherford engine is a crucial part of the Electron rocket and holds the distinction of being the first 3D-printed engine to venture into space. This impressive manufacturing tool, often towering over even professional basketball players, uses powdered metals—super-alloys made from aluminium, copper, nickel, or titanium—which are capable of enduring temperatures exceeding several thousand degrees Fahrenheit generated during a rocket launch. Through this process, layers of these alloy powders, each grain measuring around 45 microns—or roughly half the diameter of a strand of human hair—are precisely placed and fused using lasers.
Although this technology has existed for roughly two decades—allowing enthusiasts to create items like toys and mugs using filament made from melted plastic—the process has significantly advanced lately. Traditionally, making a conventional rocket engine requires casting and forging metal plates before shaping and welding them; an extended and laborious procedure. In contrast, utilizing 3D printing offers a far simpler method. Due to how quickly 3D printing can melt and solidify metallic powders, issues such as cracks forming in the material occur less frequently.
"If we're discussing a clear winner when it comes to applications for 3D printing, it would be rocket engines," states Jacob Nuechterlein, who founded and leads Elementum 3D in Erie, Colorado.
Nuechterlein attributes the ease of producing complex structures to the 3D-printing technique. Take rocket engines as an example; they utilise regenerative cooling, wherein cryofuels—liquefied propellants kept at extremely low temperatures ideal for space conditions—are circulated through internal channels within the engine’s walls to chill the nozzle prior to being reintroduced into the combustion chamber for ignition. The advantage here is that a 3D printer allows these coolant passages to be far more compact, thus enhancing engine performance without impeding fuel flow.
"That’s why the chamber doesn’t melt; it’s continuously cooled by the propellants," explains Beck.
Duties and the upcoming aerospace sector
Over the next few years, the number of rocket launches in the United States is anticipated to rise significantly. According to Doucette from Ursa Major, the vast networks of affordable, disposable satellites crucial for worldwide communications will require periodic upgrades with advanced technologies. Additionally, as space becomes an increasingly important domain for military activities, this shift is likely to boost the requirement for more launch missions.
Tariffs along with the preference for domestically produced goods from America also play a role.
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Disrupting norms. According to Brandon Ribic, the technology director at AmericaMakes—a body established in 2013 with support from the Department of Defense through the Revitalize American Manufacturing and Innovation Act—3D printing could potentially upend conventional practices.
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"Additive manufacturing is considered a kind of production technique that could facilitate local fabrication of various goods," explains Ribic. "Regarding duties, people in the industry are taking this into account." He further notes that one crucial step remaining involves expanding the domestic supply chain for these materials, making both the printers and their metallic components more readily accessible. Nonetheless, firms located in states like Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio specialize in producing metal powders essential for crafting rocket engines through 3D printing techniques. This powder-making procedure is referred to as atomization, where base substances along with recycled compositions are liquefied then released via an aerial jet stream.
We must achieve self-sufficiency as a country when it comes to rocket engines and space access," asserts Shawn Phillips, who leads the Rocket Propulsion Division at the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory — a vast testing ground spanning 65 square miles located at Edwards Air Force Base. "With additive manufacturing, we can create components that were previously impossible to produce using conventional methods.
Creating engine components more swiftly and cost-effectively might be where 3D printing could have the greatest impact. Ursa Major has engineered numerous rocket engines that are, at minimum, 80 percent produced through 3D printing techniques. The firm holds various agreements with the U.S. Air Force Research Laboratory, an organization utilizing Ursa Major’s engines for research and testing related to hypersonic tech.
All of its 3D printing activities are carried out by its staff based in Youngstown, Ohio—a city historically known as a center for steel production—where six workers manage five 3D printers. Despite having such a compact team, the rate at which parts and components can be generated through 3D printing accelerates dramatically. For example, a combustion chamber for an engine can now be manufactured within just one week instead of taking several months using conventional methods.
"When we examine the rocket engine challenge, the concern is that we're observing an increased demand. However, the industry relies on technologies that are about five decades old," according to Doucette.
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